{"id":1244,"date":"2020-03-24T04:03:51","date_gmt":"2020-03-24T04:03:51","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/?page_id=1244"},"modified":"2020-03-31T08:15:48","modified_gmt":"2020-03-31T08:15:48","slug":"3-2-acoustic-aspects-of-consonants","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/index.php\/3-2-acoustic-aspects-of-consonants\/","title":{"rendered":"3.2. Acoustic Aspects of Consonants"},"content":{"rendered":"<div id=\"pl-1244\"  class=\"panel-layout\" ><div id=\"pg-1244-0\"  class=\"panel-grid panel-no-style\" ><div id=\"pgc-1244-0-0\"  class=\"panel-grid-cell\" ><div id=\"panel-1244-0-0-0\" class=\"so-panel widget widget_sow-editor panel-first-child\" data-index=\"0\" ><div class=\"panel-widget-style panel-widget-style-for-1244-0-0-0\" ><div\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tclass=\"so-widget-sow-editor so-widget-sow-editor-base\"\n\t\t\t\n\t\t>\n<div class=\"siteorigin-widget-tinymce textwidget\">\n\t<p><b>3.2.1. English plosives: \/p\/, \/b\/, \/t\/, \/d\/, \/k\/, \/g\/<\/b><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><div id=\"panel-1244-0-0-1\" class=\"so-panel widget widget_sow-editor\" data-index=\"1\" ><div class=\"panel-widget-style panel-widget-style-for-1244-0-0-1\" ><div\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tclass=\"so-widget-sow-editor so-widget-sow-editor-base\"\n\t\t\t\n\t\t>\n<div class=\"siteorigin-widget-tinymce textwidget\">\n\t<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\">Plosives<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>are usually introduced first because of the kind of constriction in the mouth by which they are produced (closing-compression-release). There are six of them: \/p, b, t, d, k, g\/.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\/p\/ and \/b\/ are produced with the constriction at the lips (bilabial). In the case of \/ p \/, the vocal folds (cords) produce no voicing, and is consequently known as a voiceless plosive; \/b\/ is voiced.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\/t\/ and \/d\/ are produced with the constriction of the blade of the tongue against the ridge behind the upper teeth (alveolar); \/t\/ is voiceless.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\/k\/ and \/g\/ are produced with the constriction of the back of the tongue against the back of the roof of the mouth, the soft palate (velar); \/k\/ is voiceless.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>Four acoustic properties of plosives<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong><em>Duration of stop gap \u2013 silent period in the closure phase<\/em><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\">i.e. the closure duration of \/p,\u00a0t,\u00a0k\/ are longer than \/b,\u00a0d,\u00a0g\/<\/p>\n<ol start=\"2\">\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong><em>\u00a0Voic<\/em><\/strong><strong><em>ing bar \u2013 a dark bar that is shown at the low frequencies and it\u2019s usually below 200Hz<\/em><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; padding-left: 40px;\">i.e. only for voiced plosives \/b,\u00a0d,\u00a0g\/ , which is a primary indicator of voicing in the spectrogram, and all kinds of voiced sounds, including vowels, show this voicing bar at such low frequencies<\/p>\n<ol start=\"3\">\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><b><\/b><strong><em>Release burst \u2013 a strong vertical spike<\/em><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; padding-left: 40px;\">i.e. In general, we observe a stronger spike for \/p, t, k\/ than for \/b, d, g\/<\/p>\n<ol start=\"4\">\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong><em>Aspiration \u2013\u00a0a short frication noise before vowel formants begin and it is\u00a0usually in 30ms<\/em><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; padding-left: 40px;\">i.e.\u00a0\/p,\u00a0t,\u00a0k\/ of stressed syllable in initial position e.g. \/p<sup>h\/<\/sup>\u00a0in pin.\u00a0Aspiration is not the same as the release burst. The period of aspiration (which only some voiceless plosives have) is much longer than the very short release burst (which all released plosives have).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><b><i><span lang=\"EN-US\"><span style=\"font-size: large;\">Figure 3.1 A spectrogram of \"a pam, a tan, a kang\"<\/span><\/span><\/i><\/b><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1238\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.1.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"500\" height=\"216\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><b><i><span lang=\"EN-US\"><span style=\"font-size: large;\">Figure 3.2<\/span><\/span><\/i><\/b><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.2.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1239\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.2.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"500\" height=\"222\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<table width=\"100%\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"10%\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000;\"><strong>Red \u00a0<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"88%\">the stop gap in the medial phase of the \/p\/\/t\/\/k\/ (silence period)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"10%\"><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><strong>Blue<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"88%\">the release burst of the \/p\/\/t\/\/k\/<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"10%\"><span style=\"color: #ffcc00;\"><strong>Yellow<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"88%\">the aspiration (delay of the onset of voicing for \/\u00e6\/)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong><u>Voice bar<\/u><\/strong><\/span>\u00a0refers to a dark bar that is shown at the low frequencies and it\u2019s usually below 250Hz.Please see the voice bar of \/b\/\/d\/and\/g\/\u00a0in intervocalic\u00a0in Figure 3.3 \u00a0for the voice bar of \/b\/,\/d\/and\/\u0261\/.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.3 Spectrogram of the words \"a bab, a dad, a gag\" for the voicing bar<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.3.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1240\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.3.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"500\" height=\"234\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Retrieved from\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.cog.jhu.edu\/courses\/325-f2004\/ladefoged\/course\/chapter8\/figure8.html\">http:\/\/www.cog.jhu.edu\/courses\/325-f2004\/ladefoged\/course\/chapter8\/figure8.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>VOT (Voice onset time)<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>VOT is a feature of the production of stop consonants. It is defined as the length of time that passes between the release of a stop consonant and the onset of voicing.<\/li>\n<li>It is the time interval including the<strong><u>\u00a0<\/u><\/strong><u>release burst, a short frication noise after the spike<\/u>, and the\u00a0<u>aspiration.<\/u><\/li>\n<li>VOT of\u00a0<span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Voiceless unaspirated stops, Voiceless aspirated stops,\u00a0and\u00a0Voiced unaspirated stops<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><strong><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\">Voiceless unaspirated stops<\/span> <\/strong>(e.g. [p])\u00a0have a voice onset time at or near zero, meaning that the voicing of a following\u00a0sonorant\u00a0(such as a vowel) begins at or near to when the stop is released.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\">Voiceless aspirated stops<\/span> <\/strong>(e.g. [p<sup style=\"font-weight: 400;\">h<\/sup>])\u00a0have a voice onset time greater than unaspirated stops, called a<span style=\"color: #33cccc;\">\u00a0<strong>positive VOT<\/strong><\/span>. The length of the VOT in such cases is a practical measure of aspiration: The longer the VOT, the stronger the aspiration.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\">Voiced unaspirated stops<\/span> <\/strong>(e.g. [b]) have a voice onset time noticeably less than zero, a <span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>negative VOT<\/strong><\/span>, meaning the vocal cords start vibrating before the stop is released. With a\u00a0<span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">fully voiced stop<\/span>, the VOT coincides with the onset of the stop; with a\u00a0<span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">partially voiced stop<\/span>, such as English\u00a0[b, d, \u0261]\u00a0in initial position, voicing begins sometime during the closure (occlusion) of the consonant.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Figure 3.4 shows graphical representation of the VOT of voiced unaspirated, voiceless unaspirated, and voiceless aspirated stops.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.4 graphical representation of the VOT<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.4.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1241\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.4.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"400\" height=\"349\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\">(Revised from <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voice_onset_time\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voice_onset_time<\/a>)<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.5 Spectrogram of \u2018aba\u2019<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.5.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1242\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.5.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"197\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Note:<\/strong> [b] = voiced unaspirated. VOT is 0 to 20 milliseconds after stop release.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.6 Spectrogram of \u2018apa\u2019<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.6.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1212\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.6.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"201\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Note:<\/strong> [p] = voiceless aspirated.VOT is generally between 60 and 100 milliseconds.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.7 Spectrogram of \u2018aspa\u2019<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.7.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1213\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.7.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"200\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Note:<\/strong> After [s], [p] is voiceless unaspirated. VOT is from 0 to 20 milliseconds.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In Chinese pinyin system, we also have voiceless unaspirated [p] and voiceless aspirated [p<strong><sup style=\"font-weight: 400;\">h<\/sup><\/strong>], but they are represented by letter \"b\" and \"p\" respectively. This is a little confusing, because \"b\" in English is a voiced stop, while in Chinese, \"b\" represents voiceless unaspirated [p], and there is no voiced consonant in Chinese. See Figure of Chinese pinyin syllable &lt;pai&gt; (clap) and &lt;bai&gt;(white).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><b><i><span lang=\"EN-US\"><span style=\"font-size: large;\">Figure 3.8 Chinese pinyin syllable &lt;pai&gt;\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: large;\">\u6d3e<\/span><\/i><\/b><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.8.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1214\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.8.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"500\" height=\"224\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><b><i><span lang=\"EN-US\"><span style=\"font-size: large;\">Figure 3.9 Chinese pinyin syllable\u00a0 &lt;bai&gt;<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: large;\">\u767d<\/span><\/i><\/b><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.9.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1215\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.9.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"500\" height=\"210\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">We will discuss how to measure VOT in Praat in detail in Chapter 4.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>The following parts about the acoustic properties of consonants are revised from Stonham's phonetics lecture notes<\/strong><b>. Please find more details in the following link: <\/b>\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/stonham.dyndns.org\/phonetics\/handouts\/eng_obs_hndt.pdf\">http:\/\/stonham.dyndns.org\/phonetics\/handouts\/eng_obs_hndt.pdf<\/a><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>Labial Plosives: voiceless \/p\/ &amp; voiced \/b\/<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; padding-left: 40px;\">\/p\/ and\u00a0 b\/ are produced with the constriction at the lips (bilabial). In the case of \/p\/, the vocal folds (cords) produce no voicing, and is consequently known as a voiceless plosive.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>The labial plosives, \/p\/ and \/b\/, may have several different realizations in English, which depends on the position where they occur. When voiceless \/p\/ is initial in a stressed syllable, as in \"<em>paper\" <\/em>or \"<em>popular\"<\/em>, it is fairly strongly aspirated, symbolized [p<sup>h<\/sup>], while after \/s\/, the English voiceless bilabial plosive\/p\/ is not always aspirated, i.e. it shows no aspiration.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">High-intensity noise of \/p\/ and \/b\/ appears in the range of 3,000-5,000Hz.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">There is a third variety that appears at the end of the syllable, referred to as unreleased [p|].<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong> Alveolar Plosives:<\/strong><strong>voiceless \/t\/&amp; voiced \/d\/<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; padding-left: 40px;\">\/t\/ and \/d\/ are produced with the constriction of the blade of the tongue against the ridge behind the upper teeth (alveolar). \/t\/ in initial position is aspirated as [t<strong><sup style=\"font-weight: 400;\">h<\/sup><\/strong>], like in \"<em>toy\"<\/em>, but the \/t\/ following \/s\/ is unaspirated, thus \/t\/, like in\u00a0<em>store<\/em>. \u00a0There is a third variety that appears at the end of the syllable, referred to as unreleased [t|].<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>Velar Plosives: voiceless \/k\/ &amp; voiced \/g\/<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; padding-left: 40px;\">\/k\/ and \/g\/ are produced with the constriction of the back of the tongue against the back of the roof of the mouth, the soft palate (velar); \/g\/is voiced while \/k\/ is voiceless. When \/k\/ is in word- or syllable-initial stressed position, the voiceless velar plosive is aspirated as [k<strong><sup style=\"font-weight: 400;\">h<\/sup><\/strong>], and when preceded by [s], it has the same properties as the other plosives discussed so far.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>What is \"Locus Frequency\"?<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">These formant transitions are perceptually important clues (or cues) to the manner (F1) and the place (F2 &amp; F3) of the consonant. It is important to understand that the exact shape of the formant transitions will vary according to the neighboring vowel: they must start at the formant frequencies for the preceding vowel or they must end at the formant frequencies for the following vowel. However the frequency to which each transition is directed seems to be fairly consistent for a given consonant across different vowel contexts. These frequencies are called the consonant's locus frequencies (See Figure 3.10).<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.10 Schematic formant transition patterns for voiced stop-vowel syllables<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.10.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1216\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.10.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"400\" height=\"327\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Voiced stops were better identified using formant transitions (see Figure 3.11).<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3. 11 formant transitions of \/b\/, \/d\/and\/g\/<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.11.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1217\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.11.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"500\" height=\"209\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: large;\">(<\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\"><span style=\"font-size: large;\">Retrieved from\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: large;\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.lel.ed.ac.uk\/~jkirby\/hanoi\/slides\/lecture15-hanoi-4up.pdf\">http:\/\/www.lel.ed.ac.uk\/~jkirby\/hanoi\/slides\/lecture15-hanoi-4up.pdf<\/a><span style=\"color: #000000;\">)<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><div id=\"panel-1244-0-0-2\" class=\"so-panel widget widget_sow-editor\" data-index=\"2\" ><div class=\"panel-widget-style panel-widget-style-for-1244-0-0-2\" ><div\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tclass=\"so-widget-sow-editor so-widget-sow-editor-base\"\n\t\t\t\n\t\t>\n<div class=\"siteorigin-widget-tinymce textwidget\">\n\t<p><b>3.2.2. English fricatives: \/f\/, \/v\/, \/\u03b8\/, \/\u00f0\/, \/s\/, \/z\/, \/\u0283\/, \/\u0292\/, \/h\/<\/b><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><div id=\"panel-1244-0-0-3\" class=\"so-panel widget widget_sow-editor\" data-index=\"3\" ><div class=\"panel-widget-style panel-widget-style-for-1244-0-0-3\" ><div\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tclass=\"so-widget-sow-editor so-widget-sow-editor-base\"\n\t\t\t\n\t\t>\n<div class=\"siteorigin-widget-tinymce textwidget\">\n\t<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Fricatives have a looser constriction in the mouth, which allows friction to be produced at the point of contact.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">There are 9 fricatives: four pairs and \/h\/. Fricatives can be divided into<strong>\u00a0<span style=\"color: #33cccc;\">sibilants<\/span><\/strong>\u00a0versus\u00a0<strong><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\">non-sibilants<\/span>.\u00a0<\/strong>English sibilants include [s, \u0283, z, \u0292]. Sibilants involve a turbulent airstream that strikes an obstacle, such as the teeth.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">non-sibilants involve turbulence at the site of constriction sibilants tend to be louder than non-sibilants. Most of their acoustic energy occurs at higher frequencies, e.g. the bulk of the turbulence of both \/s\/ and \/z\/occurs above 3,500Hz, and reaching as high as 10,000 Hz, and \/\u0283\/ has most of its acoustic energy from around 2,000 Hz up to 10,000 Hz.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Turbulence noise is stronger in sibilants \/s, z, \u0283, \u0292\/ than non-sibilant \/f, v, \u03b8, \u00f0, h\/.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The intensity of labiodentals is lower than dental.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The intensity of post-alveolar is lower than alveolar.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Voiced fricatives \/v, \u00f0, z, \u0292\/ have a longer noise time interval and higher frication noise.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Voiceless fricatives \/f, \u03b8, s, \u0283\/ have a weaker formants.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For\/h\/, turbulent noise is very weak.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For voiceless fricative, \/s\/ has a higher average frequency than\/\u0283\/does; and both are higher than \/f\/or \/\u03b8\/.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.12 Spectrogram of voiceless fricative \/f\/, \/\u03b8\/, \/s\/, \/\u0283\/<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.12.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-1218 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.12.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"400\" height=\"276\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Voiced fricatives show aspects of both regular vocal fold vibrations and a randomly turbulent airstream. Different from their voiceless counterparts, the voiced fricatives have a substantial voicing bar occupying approximately the lower 400 Hz as shown in Figure 3.13.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3. 13 Spectrogram of voiced fricative \/v\/, \/\u00f0\/, \/z\/, \/\u0292\/<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.13.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1219\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.13.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"400\" height=\"282\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">(Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/home.cc.umanitoba.ca\/~krussll\/phonetics\/acoustic\/spectrogram-sounds.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/home.cc.umanitoba.ca\/~krussll\/phonetics\/acoustic\/spectrogram-sounds.html<\/a>)<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>A. Labio-dental Fricatives:voiceless\u00a0\/f\/ &amp;\u00a0voiced\u00a0\/v\/<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">There are two contrastive labio-dental fricatives in English, the voiceless \/f\/ and the voiced \/v\/.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The typical properties of \/f\/ include high frequency turbulence concentrated between 3,000-4,000Hz (Ladefoged, 2011: 56).<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The voiced labiodental fricative \/v\/ also shows high frequency turbulence focused above 4,000 Hz, but it is not stronger than \/f\/.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">There is no voicing bar with \/f\/, but there is a substantial voicing bar of \/v\/ occupying approximately the lower 400 Hz as shown in the following spectrogram (Figure 3.14).<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.14\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Spectrogram\u00a0of \u2018afa\u2019 and \u2018ava\u2019<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.14.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1220\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.14.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"500\" height=\"255\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span lang=\"EN-US\"><span style=\"font-size: large;\">(Retrieved from\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/stonham.dyndns.org\/phonetics\/handouts\/eng_obs_hndt.pdf\">http:\/\/stonham.dyndns.org\/phonetics\/handouts\/eng_obs_hndt.pdf<\/a>: p3<\/span><\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\"><span style=\"font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: large;\">)<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>B. Interdental Fricatives:voiceless\/\u03b8\/&amp;\u00a0voiced \/\u00f0\/<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A second pair of fricatives has the constriction between the tip or blade of the tongue and the upper teeth (dental); they are both spelt &lt;th&gt;, The two words \"<em>thin\"<\/em> and \"<em>then\"<\/em> illustrate the two; in \"<em>thin\"<\/em>, the &lt;th&gt; represents a voiceless fricative \/<strong>\u03b8<\/strong>\/; on the other hand, the &lt;th&gt; in <em>then<\/em> is voiced and this has an IPA symbol \/<span style=\"color: #333333;\"><strong>\u00f0<\/strong><\/span>\/.The turbulence for both begins at 2,500Hz.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.15 Spectrogram of \/a\u03b8a\/ and \/a<span style=\"color: #333333;\">\u00f0<\/span><\/em><em>a<\/em>\/<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.15.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1221\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.15.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"500\" height=\"227\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">(<a href=\"http:\/\/stonham.dyndns.org\/phonetics\/lectures\/eng_obs.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Retrieved from http:\/\/stonham.dyndns.org\/phonetics\/lectures\/eng_obs.pdf<\/a>: p97&amp;p98)<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>C. Alveolar Fricatives:voiceless\/s\/ &amp; voiced\u00a0\/z\/<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The third pair of fricatives, \/s\/ and \/z\/ have the constriction between the blade of the tongue and the ridge behind the upper teeth (alveolar). With \/z\/ there is a voicing bar which cannot be found in \/s\/, and the bulk of the turbulence of both \/s\/ and \/z\/occurs above 3,500Hz.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.16 Spectrogram of \/a<\/em>s<em>a\/ and \/a<\/em>z<em>a\/<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.16.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1222\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.16.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"500\" height=\"236\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">(Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/stonham.dyndns.org\/phonetics\/lectures\/eng_obs.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/stonham.dyndns.org\/phonetics\/lectures\/eng_obs.pdf<\/a>: p102&amp;p103)<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>D. Alveo-Palatal Fricatives:voiceless\/\u0283\/&amp;\u00a0voiced \/\u0292\/<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The fourth pair has the constriction between the body of the tongue and the forward part of the roof of the mouth, immediately behind the teeth ridge (palato-alveolar, or pre-palatal).<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The IPA symbol for the voiceless palato-alveolar fricative is like a letter &lt;s&gt; stretched high and low: \/<span style=\"color: #333333;\">\u0283<\/span>\/; and is often represented by the letters &lt;sh&gt; in English \u2013 in fact, in the word English itself. The IPA symbol for the voiced palato-alveolar fricative looks like a handwritten &lt;<span style=\"color: #333333;\">\u0292<\/span>&gt;.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The range of turbulence for both of these is from around 2,000 Hz up to 10,000 Hz , among which, \/<span style=\"color: #333333;\">\u0283<\/span>\/ has most of its acoustic energy at around 4000Hz, extending up to around 8,000Hz.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure \u00a03. 17 Spectrogram of \/a<span style=\"color: #333333;\">\u0283<\/span><\/em><em>a\/ and \/a<span style=\"color: #333333;\">\u0292<\/span><\/em><em>a\/<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.17.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1223\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.17.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"500\" height=\"207\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">(Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/stonham.dyndns.org\/phonetics\/lectures\/eng_obs.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/stonham.dyndns.org\/phonetics\/lectures\/eng_obs.pdf<\/a>: p105 &amp; p106)<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>E. Glottal Fricative \/h\/<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The ninth fricative is \/h\/, which is voiceless at the beginning of a word but is voiced (breathy voice) in the middle of a word because the two voicing possibilities never contrast meanings of words in English. There is no voicing bar for \/h\/, and its<strong>\u00a0<span style=\"color: #33cccc;\">turbulence appears<\/span>\u00a0<\/strong>to be strongest around\u00a0<strong><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\">1,000 Hz<\/span>.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.18\u00a0 Spectrogram of aha<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.18.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1225\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.18.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"400\" height=\"316\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\">F. Sibilants[s, \u0283, z, \u0292]<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<ul style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<li>fricatives can be divided into<strong>\u00a0<span style=\"color: #33cccc;\">sibilants<\/span><\/strong>\u00a0versus\u00a0<strong><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\">non-sibilants<\/span>;\u00a0<\/strong>the English sibilants include [s, \u0283, z, \u0292].<\/li>\n<li>sibilants involve a turbulent airstream that strikes an obstacle, such as the teeth.<\/li>\n<li>non-sibilants involve turbulence at the site of constriction.<\/li>\n<li>sibilants tend to be louder than non-sibilants.<\/li>\n<li>most of their acoustic energy occurs at higher frequencies, e.g. the bulk of the turbulence of both \/s\/ and \/z\/occurs above 3,500Hz, and reaching as high as 10,000 Hz, and \/\u0283\/ has most of its acoustic energy from around 2,000 Hz up to 10,000 Hz.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong>The summary table of turbulence frequency and intensity of the fricatives<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.18.5.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1224 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.18.5.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"391\" height=\"289\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\">(The frequency value are excerpted from Ladefoged&amp;Disner, 2012 and <a href=\"http:\/\/stonham.dyndns.org\/phonetics\/handouts\/eng_obs_hndt.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/stonham.dyndns.org\/phonetics\/handouts\/eng_obs_hndt.pdf<\/a>)<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the below spectrograms of \"<u>sip<\/u>\", \"<u>zip<\/u>\" and \"<u>ship<\/u>\", we can observe the fricative sibilants\/s\/, \/z\/,and \/\u0283\/ produce strong turbulence noise.\u00a0 Post-alveolar \/\u0283\/ has the strongest energy concentration 2,000-5,000Hz. Then, the energy concentration of voiced alveolar \/z\/ is stronger than voiceless alveolar \/s\/. We can see a stop gap and a vertical spike at the final position.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.19\u00a0 Spectrogram of sip<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.19.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-1226 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.19.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"400\" height=\"362\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.20\u00a0 Spectrogram of zip<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.20.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1227\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.20.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"400\" height=\"359\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.21\u00a0 Spectrogram of ship<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.21.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1228\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.21.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"400\" height=\"365\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><div id=\"panel-1244-0-0-4\" class=\"so-panel widget widget_sow-editor\" data-index=\"4\" ><div class=\"panel-widget-style panel-widget-style-for-1244-0-0-4\" ><div\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tclass=\"so-widget-sow-editor so-widget-sow-editor-base\"\n\t\t\t\n\t\t>\n<div class=\"siteorigin-widget-tinymce textwidget\">\n\t<p><b>3.2.3. English fricatives: voiceless \/t\u0283\/ &amp; \/d\u0292\/<\/b><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><div id=\"panel-1244-0-0-5\" class=\"so-panel widget widget_sow-editor\" data-index=\"5\" ><div class=\"panel-widget-style panel-widget-style-for-1244-0-0-5\" ><div\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tclass=\"so-widget-sow-editor so-widget-sow-editor-base\"\n\t\t\t\n\t\t>\n<div class=\"siteorigin-widget-tinymce textwidget\">\n\t<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">An affricate consonant is a close knit sequence of <u>a plosive and a fricative\u00a0<\/u>produced by a single organ of speech (articulator). In English, there are just two. One is commonly spelt &lt;ch&gt; and occurs, for instance, in words like \"<em>chip<\/em>\" or \"<em>church<\/em>\"; its IPA symbol is \/t\u0283\/ representing the sequence of plosive \/t\/and fricative \/\u0283\/ made by the body of the tongue in the palato-alveolar area. The symbol also indicates its voicelessness.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The other affricate occurs at the beginning of the word <em>gem<\/em>\u00a0or\u00a0<em>judge<\/em> and is commonly spelt with &lt;g&gt; or &lt;j&gt;, &lt;dge&gt;. Its IPA symbol is \/d\u0292\/ ( a voiced combination of \/d\/ for the plosive element and \/\u0292\/ for the fricative element).<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The bulk of the turbulence of both \/t\u0283\/ and \/d\u0292\/occurs above 2,000Hz.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong><u>Examples:<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the below spectrogram of\u00a0<u>jeep<\/u>\u00a0and\u00a0<u>cheep<\/u>, the stop gap and fricative noise can be observed clearly. Moreover the fricative noise of voiceless \/t\u0283\/ is longer than the voiced\/d\u0292\/.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3. 22 Spectrogram of jeep<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.22.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1229\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.22.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"500\" height=\"359\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3. 23 Spectrogram of cheep<\/em><\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.23.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1230\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.23.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"500\" height=\"403\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><div id=\"panel-1244-0-0-6\" class=\"so-panel widget widget_sow-editor\" data-index=\"6\" ><div class=\"panel-widget-style panel-widget-style-for-1244-0-0-6\" ><div\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tclass=\"so-widget-sow-editor so-widget-sow-editor-base\"\n\t\t\t\n\t\t>\n<div class=\"siteorigin-widget-tinymce textwidget\">\n\t<p><b>3.2.4. Approximants: \/w\/, \/r\/, \/l\/, \/j\/<\/b><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><div id=\"panel-1244-0-0-7\" class=\"so-panel widget widget_sow-editor\" data-index=\"7\" ><div class=\"panel-widget-style panel-widget-style-for-1244-0-0-7\" ><div\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tclass=\"so-widget-sow-editor so-widget-sow-editor-base\"\n\t\t\t\n\t\t>\n<div class=\"siteorigin-widget-tinymce textwidget\">\n\t<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">An approximant is a consonant in which the constriction made by an organ of speech (an articulator) is not great enough to produce any friction at all. The four approximants occur at the beginning of the words, like \"<em>lot<\/em>\"<em>, \"rot\", \"yacht\" and \"what\". <\/em>Like vowels, approximants are:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">highly resonant<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">produced with a relatively open vocal tract<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">characterised by identifiable formant structures<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">continuant sounds since there is no occlusion or momentary stoppage of the airstream<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">non-turbulent due to lack of constriction<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">oral sounds<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong><em>\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>They have faint formant structures that they all have a low F1 (below 1,000Hz) as they are voiced consonants (See Figure 3.24).<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3. 24\u00a0 A spectrogram of approximants in \"led, red, wed, yell\"<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.24.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1231\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.24.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"500\" height=\"209\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">(Retrieved from Ladefoged (2006), A Course In Phonetics <a href=\"http:\/\/www.cog.jhu.edu\/courses\/325-f2004\/ladefoged\/course\/chapter8\/figure8.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.cog.jhu.edu\/courses\/325-f2004\/ladefoged\/course\/chapter8\/figure8.html)<\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>A. Labial-velarapproximants\/w\/<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For labial-velar approximants \/w\/, a large downward transition of F2 is characteristic due to the back tongue constriction. Lip rounding lowers the intensity of all formants particularly F3. So \/w\/ has F1 (250-450Hz), F2 (600 - 850Hz), and F3 (2,000 - 2,400Hz).<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(The formant values were retrieved from Cox's website,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/clas.mq.edu.au\/speech\/acoustics\/consonants\/approxweb.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/clas.mq.edu.au\/speech\/acoustics\/consonants\/approxweb.html<\/a>)<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>B. Palatalapproximants\/j\/<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For palatal approximant \/j\/, the tongue is in the position for a front half close to close vowel (depending on the degree of openness of the following sound).\u00a0 Therefore it has a similar formant pattern to \/i\/. Lips are neutral to spread but rounded in anticipation of round vowels. It has a low F1 (200 - 300Hz) and a high F2 (1,850 - 2,100Hz) and F3 (2,620 - 3,050Hz).<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Cox, <a href=\"http:\/\/clas.mq.edu.au\/speech\/acoustics\/consonants\/approxweb.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/clas.mq.edu.au\/speech\/acoustics\/consonants\/approxweb.html<\/a>)<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\/j\/ and\/w\/ are traditionally called semi-vowels because, although they are formed like close vowels, they do not function as vowels. The approximant at the beginning of\u00a0<em>yacht<\/em> has the IPA symbol is the letter &lt; j &gt; transcribed as \/ j \/ . Examples: you, youth, young, yet, yellow.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>C. Alveolarapproximant \/r\/<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The frequency of F1 appears to be related to lip rounding. i.e. low F1 = lip round.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\/r\/ is characterized by very low F3 due to retroflex articulation, which is usually below 2,000Hz, sometimes, falling to as low as 1,500Hz (Ladefoged, 2011:54). According to Cox, \/r\/ normally has F1 (300-350Hz), F2 (1,000-1,200Hz) and F3(1,600 -1,750Hz).<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>D. Alveolar lateral approximant \/l\/<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">English has one lateral phoneme: the lateral approximant \/l\/, which in many accents has two allophones. One, found before vowels as in\" <em>lady\"<\/em> or \"<em>fly\"<\/em>, is called\u00a0<em>clear l<\/em>, pronounced as\u00a0<u>t<strong>he alveolar lateral approximant [l]<\/strong>\u00a0<\/u>with a \"neutral\" position of the body of the tongue. The other variant, so-called\u00a0<span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>dark l <\/strong><\/span>found before consonants or word-finally, as in \"<em>bold\"<\/em> or \"<em>tell\"<\/em>, is pronounced as<strong>\u00a0<u>the velarized alveolar lateral approximant [\u026b]\u00a0<\/u><\/strong>with the tongue assuming a spoon-like shape with its back part raised. Since the two varieties never contrast meanings in English, together they constitute a single phoneme, and so only a single symbol is required.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.25 A spectrogram of dark[\u026b] and clear [l]<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.25.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1232 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.25.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"327\" height=\"314\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><em>(From Recasens &amp; Espinosa (2005), \u2018Articulatory, positional and coarticulatory characteristics for clear \/l\/ and dark \/\u026b\/: evidence from two Catalan dialects\u2019, JIPA 35(1), 1-25.)<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For\u00a0<strong>\/l\/<\/strong>, F1 is low and there is no continuous transition at vowel junctures, the difference between clear and dark \/\u026b\/ qualities are determined by the frequency of F2, as shown in the Spectrogram, F2 of dark\/\u026b\/ is lower than that of clear \/l\/.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; padding-left: 40px;\"><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>Clear \/l\/<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<li>F1 approx 200 - 400 Hz - F1 rises to all vowel targets except high front<\/li>\n<li>F2 approx 950-1,500Hz (lowest for back vowels)<\/li>\n<li>F3 approx 2,700-3,200<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; padding-left: 40px;\"><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>Dark \/\u026b\/<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<li>F1 in the range 350-550Hz<\/li>\n<li>F2 in the range 650-850Hz<\/li>\n<li>F3 in the range 2,200- 2,700Hz<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">High intensity, particularly for syllabic \/l\/.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(Excerpted\u00a0from Cox,\u00a0retrieved from\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/clas.mq.edu.au\/speech\/acoustics\/consonants\/approxweb.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/clas.mq.edu.au\/speech\/acoustics\/consonants\/approxweb.html<\/a>)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><div id=\"panel-1244-0-0-8\" class=\"so-panel widget widget_sow-editor\" data-index=\"8\" ><div class=\"panel-widget-style panel-widget-style-for-1244-0-0-8\" ><div\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tclass=\"so-widget-sow-editor so-widget-sow-editor-base\"\n\t\t\t\n\t\t>\n<div class=\"siteorigin-widget-tinymce textwidget\">\n\t<p><b>3.2.5. Nasals: \/m\/, \/n\/, and \/\u014b\/<\/b><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><div id=\"panel-1244-0-0-9\" class=\"so-panel widget widget_sow-editor\" data-index=\"9\" ><div class=\"panel-widget-style panel-widget-style-for-1244-0-0-9\" ><div\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tclass=\"so-widget-sow-editor so-widget-sow-editor-base\"\n\t\t\t\n\t\t>\n<div class=\"siteorigin-widget-tinymce textwidget\">\n\t<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Nasals have the same constriction as plosives except that air is allowed to pass through the nose but not through the mouth. There are three nasals in English: \/m\/ (bilabial), \/n\/ (alveolar) and \/\u014b\/ (velar); All nasals are voiced consonants.. The \u2018ng\u2019 sound represented by the velar nasal IPA symbol for the \/\u014b\/ is seen in words such as bank, anger and bang. They are formed by an oral closure accompanied by an open nasal passage. Both airflow and acoustic vibration pass through the open velar port into the nasopharyx and nasal cavities. And nasals reveal the abrupt loss of overall energy. The nose is less efficient than the mouth in radiating the energy to the outside.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Nasals involve a heavy voicing bar demonstrating their voicing<strong>, <\/strong>and\u00a0in addition, they have formants like vowels, although they are somewhat lighter<strong>.\u00a0<\/strong>The nasal is also less prominent on the waveform, although still more than an obstruent<strong>.\u00a0<\/strong>The individual place of articulation of the nasal is indicated by the adjacent vowel formants, and these properties appear in either onset or coda position. There is a clear discontinuity between the formants of the nasal and those of adjacent sounds. Like stops, the crucial information is contained in the formant transitions. From the following spectrogram, we can find the patterns of formant transitions preceding 3 nasals.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The formants of all these three nasals are not as dark as they are in vowels. \u00a0The frequency of F1 is very low (200-450 Hz) and the F3 is more visible (2500Hz). F2 is generally not visible (Please see Figure 3.26).<\/p>\n<ul style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\n<li><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>[m]<\/strong><\/span> shows a fairly level F1 with a downward sloping F2<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>[n]<\/strong><\/span> shows a downward slope for both F1 and F2<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #33cccc;\"><strong>[\u014b]<\/strong><\/span> shows an upward direction for F2 and a downward direction for F3<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.26\u00a0 The spectrogram of three nasals<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.26.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1233\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.26.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"500\" height=\"333\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><span lang=\"EN-US\"><i><span style=\"font-size: large;\">(Pictures retrieved from Ladefoged (2003), Phonetic Data Analysis: An Introduction to Fieldwork and Instrumental Techniques,<\/span><\/i><\/span><span lang=\"EN-US\"><span style=\"font-size: large;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span><i><span lang=\"EN-US\"><span style=\"font-size: large;\">Malden, MA &amp; Oxford: Blackwell Pub\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/i><span lang=\"EN-US\"><span style=\"font-size: large;\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.lel.ed.ac.uk\/~jkirby\/hanoi\/slides\/lecture15-hanoi-4up.pdf\">http:\/\/www.lel.ed.ac.uk\/~jkirby\/hanoi\/slides\/lecture15-hanoi-4up.pdf<\/a><span style=\"color: #000000;\">)<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">When \/m\/, \/n\/ and \/\u014b\/ are found before another consonant, the voiced or voiceless nature of the final consonant has an effect on the length of both the vowel and the nasal consonant, the sounds \/m\/, \/n\/ and \/\u014b\/ are longer when followed by the gentle voiced consonant than when followed by the strong voiceless consonant. From the spectrogram below, we can easily find that the \/m\/ in symbol \/'simbl\/ is longer than the \/m\/in simple \/'simpl\/.<\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400; text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.27 The spectrogram of simple<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.27.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1234\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.27.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"500\" height=\"248\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Figure 3.28 The spectrogram of symbol<\/em><\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.28.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-1235\" src=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Praat3.28.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"500\" height=\"226\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><div id=\"panel-1244-0-0-10\" class=\"so-panel widget widget_sow-editor\" data-index=\"10\" ><div class=\"panel-widget-style panel-widget-style-for-1244-0-0-10\" ><div\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tclass=\"so-widget-sow-editor so-widget-sow-editor-base\"\n\t\t\t\n\t\t>\n<div class=\"siteorigin-widget-tinymce textwidget\">\n\t<p><b>References<\/b><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><div id=\"panel-1244-0-0-11\" class=\"so-panel widget widget_sow-editor\" data-index=\"11\" ><div class=\"panel-widget-style panel-widget-style-for-1244-0-0-11\" ><div\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tclass=\"so-widget-sow-editor so-widget-sow-editor-base\"\n\t\t\t\n\t\t>\n<div class=\"siteorigin-widget-tinymce textwidget\">\n\t<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><em>Recasens &amp; Espinosa (2005), \u2018Articulatory, positional and coarticulatory characteristics for clear \/l\/ and dark \/l\/: evidence from two Catalan dialects\u2019, JIPA 35(1), 1-25.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><i>Ladefoged (2006), A Course In Phonetics <a href=\"http:\/\/www.cog.jhu.edu\/courses\/325-f2004\/ladefoged\/course\/chapter8\/figure8.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.cog.jhu.edu\/courses\/325-f2004\/ladefoged\/course\/chapter8\/figure8.html<\/a><\/i><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.cog.jhu.edu\/courses\/325-f2004\/ladefoged\/course\/chapter8\/figure8.html\">http:\/\/www.cog.jhu.edu\/courses\/325-f2004\/ladefoged\/course\/chapter8\/figure8.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><em>Ladefoged (2003), Phonetic Data Analysis: An Introduction to Fieldwork and Instrumental Techniques,<\/em><i>\u00a0<\/i><em>Malden, MA &amp; Oxford: Blackwell Pub\u00a0<\/em><i><a href=\"http:\/\/www.lel.ed.ac.uk\/~jkirby\/hanoi\/slides\/lecture15-hanoi-4up.pdf\">http:\/\/www.lel.ed.ac.uk\/~jkirby\/hanoi\/slides\/lecture15-hanoi-4up.pdf<\/a>)<\/i><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Cox's acoustics website:\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/clas.mq.edu.au\/speech\/acoustics\/consonants\/approxweb.html\">http:\/\/clas.mq.edu.au\/speech\/acoustics\/consonants\/approxweb.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Prof Stonham's lecture notes and handouts:<a href=\"http:\/\/stonham.dyndns.org\/phonetics\/handouts\/eng_obs_hndt.pdf\">http:\/\/stonham.dyndns.org\/phonetics\/handouts\/eng_obs_hndt.pdf<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voice_onset_time\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voice_onset_time<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.ling.ohio-state.edu\/~swinters\/371\/VOTdifferences.pdf\">www.ling.ohio-state.edu\/~swinters\/371\/VOTdifferences.pdf<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.lel.ed.ac.uk\/~jkirby\/hanoi\/slides\/lecture15-hanoi-4up.pdf\">http:\/\/www.lel.ed.ac.uk\/~jkirby\/hanoi\/slides\/lecture15-hanoi-4up.pdf<\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><a href=\"http:\/\/home.cc.umanitoba.ca\/~krussll\/phonetics\/acoustic\/spectrogram-sounds.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/home.cc.umanitoba.ca\/~krussll\/phonetics\/acoustic\/spectrogram-sounds.html<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><div id=\"panel-1244-0-0-12\" class=\"so-panel widget widget_sow-editor panel-last-child\" data-index=\"12\" ><div class=\"panel-widget-style panel-widget-style-for-1244-0-0-12\" ><div\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tclass=\"so-widget-sow-editor so-widget-sow-editor-base\"\n\t\t\t\n\t\t>\n<div class=\"siteorigin-widget-tinymce textwidget\">\n\t<hr \/>\n<p><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/index.php\/chapter-3-acoustic-analysis-of-consonants\/\">Back to Chapter 3<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/index.php\/our-praat-manual\/\">Back to Praat Manual<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><p>Hits: 122877<\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>3.2.1. English plosives: \/p\/, \/b\/, \/t\/, \/d\/, \/k\/, \/g\/ Plosives\u00a0are usually introduced first because of the kind of constriction in the mouth by which they are produced (closing-compression-release). There are six of them: \/p, b, t, d, k, g\/. \/p\/<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1244"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1244"}],"version-history":[{"count":22,"href":"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1244\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1455,"href":"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1244\/revisions\/1455"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/corpus.eduhk.hk\/english_pronunciation\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1244"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}