Third language acquisition (TLA) refers to the process of acquiring a language that is different from both the first language (L1) and second language (L2) and is acquired after them. Recent years have seen rapid growth in the field of study on TLA, focusing on the distinctions between acquiring a L2 and acquiring a third language (L3).
There are notable differences due to the fact that L3 learners already possess at least two languages in terms of linguistic repertoire. These learners can draw upon their broader linguistic repertoire when acquiring L3. For instance, they can make connections between new language structures, vocabulary, or sounds and the two languages they are already familiar with, rather than just one language as monolingual individuals do. Additionally, learners who have previously learned L2 have gained valuable experience as language learners and have likely developed certain skills and strategies for language acquisition. These skills and strategies can be reactivated and adapted to the task of learning L3.
Another important difference between SLA and TLA pertains to the diversity of learning contexts. Various factors such as age, instructional methods, and motivation can contribute to these distinctions. In the context of TLA, this diversity extends not only to the target language but also to the way how the L2 was acquired. Furthermore, significant variations can arise in terms of language use. Some L3 learners actively engage in bilingualism, utilizing their L1 and L2 in their daily lives, whereas others living in monolingual environments only occasionally employ their L2, which in this case is a foreign language. Although TLA is also a process of the acquisition of a non-native language, which is similar to SLA, it encompasses both effects of bilingualism and additional cognitive and social outcomes like metalinguistic awareness and creativity (Cenoz, 2013).
There is, in fact, no uniform developmental trajectory in the acquisition of phonology in a third language (L3), particularly in the case of individuals who are early bilinguals (Cabrelli Amaro & Wrembel, 2016). Kopečková et al. (2016) attempted to model the patterns of L3 phonological development by proposing Dynamic Systems Theory (DST). The systems, as interpreted in DST, evolve through their interaction with the surrounding environment and through internal restructuring. They are in a constant state of change, either as a result of external influences or internal reorganization. Celce-Murcia et al. (2010) highlighted the significant impact of external variables and individual learner characteristics on the ultimate success of target language acquisition, including the attainment of foreign language pronunciation. Based on the classification proposed by Zhang (2009), external variables refer to sociocultural and pedagogical factors that influence the learning environment, such as learner’s native language, exposure to the target language, and the quantity and type of pronunciation instruction they receive. As for internal factors, derived from the learners themselves, include biological, cognitive, and psychological aspects, such as age, aptitude, learning style, motivation, and affective factors. With a focus on effective teaching approaches and learning strategies, the proposed framework emphasizes the dynamic nature of language development in learners.
A Framework for Integrating Learning Strategies and Mobile Pedagogy
for L3 Pronunciation
I. Diagnosing problematic features
– to compare features of their own with those shared by the participants in our project
T: formative assessment via EdTech tools such as Kahoot, Nearpod (apart from traditional questioning, paper-based assessments)
Ss: self-diagnosis by adopting cognitive strategies (e.g., analysis, note-taking, summarizing)
*Recommendation: particularly for Ss with low proficiency (Slow), affective strategies (e.g., self-encouraging & self-rewarding for good performance)
II. Connecting sounds of different systems
– to analyze the similarities and differences of sounds between L3 and the learner’s L1 and L2 through explicit instruction; and
– to raise perceptual sensitivity
T: explicit instruction via CAPT applications (e.g., integration of EdTech tools like EdPuzzle etc.)
*T->Slow: multimodal translanguaging approach
(Tips : In the initial stages of learning a new language (L3), beginners may find it challenging to master the sound systems and symbols. To facilitate this process, teachers can use the sound and symbol systems of the learners’ native languages (L1 and/or L2) as scaffolding, providing specific notes on tongue position and other relevant factors)
Ss: memory strategies (e.g., using mime and gesture, representing sounds in memory with visual aids, reviewing) & cognitive strategies (e.g., analysis, note-taking, summarizing)
III. Increasing input in both quantity and quality
– to immerse Ss in authentic L3 with a focus on improving the amount and the level of the input
T: shadowing practice with the use of different platforms, such as EnglishCentral
Ss: compensatory strategies (e.g., using synonyms and “talking around” the missing word and using gestures or pause words)
IV. Embedding sounds in different contexts (phonetic, cultural, etc.)
– to make learning process more engaging and memorable via focused practice
a. perception practice
T: Corpus-based practice, web-based HVPT, CAAC
b. production practice
T: Integration of AI-powered platforms (e.g., speech-to-text applications, such as Speechnotes https://speechnotes.co/dictate/)
Ss: memory strategies (e.g., using mime and gesture, representing sounds in memory with visual aids, reviewing) & cognitive strategies (e.g., analysis, note-taking, summarizing)
*Recommendation: metacognitive strategies (e.g., self-monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task success, and evaluating the success of any type of learning strategy)
V. Reflection and adjustment
– to monitor progress and adjust the approach
T: reflective journal via online platforms (e.g., Padlet)
Ss: metacognitive strategies (e.g., self-monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task success, and evaluating the success of any type of learning strategy)
References
Cabrelli Amaro, J., & Wrembel, M. (2016). Investigating the acquisition of phonology in a third language–a state of the science and an outlook for the future. International Journal of Multilingualism, 13(4), 395-409.
Calka, A. (2011). Pronunciation learning strategies–identification and classification. Speaking and instructed foreign language acquisition, 57, 149-168.
Cenoz, J. (2013). The influence of bilingualism on third language acquisition: Focus on multilingualism. Language Teaching, 46(1), 71-86.
Kopečková, R., Marecka, M., Wrembel, M., & Gut, U. (2016). Interactions between three phonological subsystems of young multilinguals: The influence of language status. International journal of multilingualism, 13(4), 426-443.
Tanner, M., & Landon, M. (2009). The effects of computer-assisted pronunciation readings on ESL learners’ use of pausing, stress, intonation, and overall comprehensibility. Language Learning & Technology, 13(3), 51-65. https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/7696f204-9fe2-461b-8fa2-bb2c8e918a1c/content